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Why fungible crypto assets are not securities

The Owl
By and The Owl
Why fungible crypto assets are not securities

Why fungible crypto assets are not securities

The speakers at our Owl Explains Hootenanny last week are co-authors of the most thorough analysis to date of the burning question of whether fungible crypto assets are - or are not - securities. (Spoiler alert – mostly they are not.) Lewis Cohen, Freeman Lewin and Sarah Chen from DLX law firm have analysed the US Securities Acts, the ‘Howey test’ on investment contracts (more on that below) and 266 pieces of case law where the Howey test was applied to different scenarios. The resulting paper is 180 pages long. But fear not! This owl has served up this pithy appetiser to whet your appetite for the full feast which you can find here

So what’s this all about?

The flurry of Initial Coin Offerings (ICOs) a few years ago has led some regulators to conflate the token sales in an ICO and the crypto assets involved in them and seek to apply US securities laws to both.  The authors of this paper do not dispute that the fundraising activity of an ICO – inviting investors to purchase crypto assets in a fledgling project with the hope of making a profit – might indeed involve an investment contract and that securities law would often apply. What they dispute is whether and when the crypto assets themselves qualify as ‘securities’ according to current laws and regulations. Just as oranges, chinchillas, whiskey barrels and stamps can form part of an investment contract but are not themselves securities, the same goes for crypto assets.  (This owl particularly enjoyed the bit about how chinchillas are not securities – of course they aren’t – they’re lunch).  They also challenge the notion that ‘once a security, always a security’ that continues to classify a crypto asset as a security well beyond the context of an ICO when the crypto asset may be performing all manner of other functions that do not involve an investment contract.

So what should regulators do instead?

The co-authors recommend that the status of a crypto asset can only be determined by first understanding the true nature of the crypto asset – and then by understanding and applying case law and legal scholarship on investment contract transactions. And that is exactly what the article does – exploring first the nature of crypto assets and then delving into case law and legal scholarship to explore when an investment contract does and does not exist.

Why does this matter?

It matters more than ever right now as policy makers and regulators, particularly in the US, are leaning towards deeming many, even all, crypto assets to be securities without going through this exercise of interrogating the nature of the asset and the transaction.  And that matters because if all crypto assets are treated as securities even if they represent things that clearly are not – and even when they are clearly not part of an investment contract - regulators risk not only strangling with red tape the innovation and promise of Web3, but also causing confusion for all manner of items like the aforementioned chinchillas.

So when is a crypto asset a security?

A crypto asset is a security either by its very nature (e.g., a stock or bond on blockchain). When it is part of an investment contract according to the Howey Test, well, the crypto asset is not a security but the investment contract is. Clearly crypto assets cannot be assumed to be securities by their very nature – because a crypto asset can represent literally anything at all. They may occasionally be – but equally (and more often) they may not be.  So where the asset is not a security by nature, we have to assess whether they might be part of an investment contract as defined by the Howey Test. Still not a security, but the subject of an investment contract.

So what is the Howey Test?

The Howey test says that an investment contract transaction exists when a “contract, transaction or scheme” involves 

  1. an investment of money

  2. in a common enterprise

  3. with an expectation of profits to come

  4. solely from the efforts of the promoter or a third party.

So the Howey test defines correctly that fundraising by selling crypto assets as part of an ICO might be an investment contract that the securities laws apply to. And while crypto assets are part of that investment contract, they are not themselves securities.  But what happens when the fundraise is complete and the crypto assets are being used for other purposes where Howey tells us clearly there is no investment contract? An example could be when they are merely validated, delegated or staked. Or when they are performing as a utility token intrinsic to the functioning of a blockchain. The article does not shy away from the complexity of all this. In fact it opens with a quote from Homer’s The Odyssey where the old man of the sea changes himself ‘first into a lion with a great mane, then all of a sudden he became a dragon, a leopard, a wild boar; the next moment he was running water and then again directly he was a tree’  Why? Because crypto assets can also shape shift in that different circumstances can affect whether a cryptoasset should be treated as a security or not.  With this mercurial nature then, regulators and practitioners need to consider each and every transaction and activity concerning a crypto asset on a case by case basis to determine whether there is a security or not.  But this isn’t always possible because the information needed to make that assessment is private.

So what is the solution?

A new law and more engagement from and between the SEC, FTC, CFTC, Department for Justice and state attorneys general.

So you mean regulation?

Yes. Fundamentally the co-authors call for regulation based on the kind of thorough understanding and legal analysis of crypto assets that this paper provides.

Other resources

Our wise owl Lee Schneider has written a few essays that talk about these issues and are available here and here.

Articles

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2025-04-03

Exploring Models of Staking

This is Part Two in our Staking series. Click here to read Part 1. Staking is frequently a mischaracterized and misunderstood activity, in large part due to a lack of understanding surrounding the fundamental principles of staking as well as the different models. Staking is an integral part of the infrastructure that keeps a blockchain functioning and secure. It is a technological activity utilizing hardware and software, and reliant on communications over the internet.  It determines who participates in the updating of the blockchain to maintain Byzantine fault tolerance. It does not require the participant to transfer ownership of their tokens to a third party - it is not lending or custody —but some models do involve the token owner transferring control. While rewards are in place to act as an incentive for participants to stake their tokens, this is an outcome of the process, not the driver for it.  PoS includes several variations, each catering to different user needs and blockchain architectures. Solo or Direct Staking Users run their own validator nodes via their own software and hardware, maintaining full control over their staked assets and potentially receiving higher rewards than if they were using a third party. However, the barrier to entry for solo staking is high - there is significant technical expertise required as well as a large up front equipment cost. Additionally, there is the cost of the stake that must be posted:  32 ETH to activate a validator on Ethereum, 2000 AVAX on Avalanche, for example. Users are solely responsible for maintaining hardware uptime and security, and therefore will bear the full effect of any penalties from the protocol if there are failings.  Third party models The term Staking-as-a-Service (StaaS)  is often used very broadly in the blockchain ecosystem, but is actually not particularly helpful, as it is too generic a description. A third party can manage many different aspects of the staking process for users depending on a number of factors; it is best therefore to split this category out. Non-custodial delegated staking: Token holders stake their cryptoassets via a self-hosted wallet but delegate validator operation to a third party, such as a StaaS provider, in exchange for a service fee. This reduces costs and technical complexity compared to solo staking while ensuring that only the token holder can sign transactions, claim rewards, and unstake using their private keys. Custodial delegated staking: many large cryptoasset custodians now offer staking as an ancillary activity. The custodian stakes the tokens (with permission) on behalf of the token holder in exchange for a service fee. While the third party will take custody of the assets in this example, it is because of their nature as a custodian, not because staking requires it. Custodians can store the tokens in different wallets based on the requirements of the tokenholders: segregated staking keeps the tokens entirely separate from others and there is no co-mingling of assets; omnibus staking puts all tokens together in an omnibus or aggregated wallet, lowering the barrier to entry; pooled staking combines assets across multiple participants in return for a ‘share’ of an already active staking position.    Liquid Staking:  A commonly cited concern with staking is that once a token is staked to the network, it can’t be accessed until the end of the lock up period. Liquid staking providers allow tokens to be deployed via a protocol to receive a receipt token (or Liquid Staking Token (LST)) which acts as proof of the underlying staked tokens and any associated rewards. The LST can then be deployed in other activities e.g. on Defi protocols and can continue earning rewards.  Staking isn’t a one-size-fits-all approach—different models cater to different needs, from solo staking for those who want full control to third-party and liquid staking options that lower barriers to entry. That’s why it is important to read the fine print on whichever model you choose.  While these models make staking more accessible and flexible, they also come with varying degrees of risk, from slashing penalties to counterparty exposure. So, what should you watch out for when staking your assets? In our final post, we’ll explore the key risks and considerations to keep in mind before getting started. Stay tuned!

The Owl
By and The Owl
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2025-03-11

The Fundamentals: What is Staking? 

Welcome to Part 1 of our Staking Series... Consensus mechanisms serve as the backbone of decentralised networks, ensuring security, efficiency, and trust in the evolving landscape of blockchain technology. In recent years, Proof of Stake (PoS) has emerged as an energy-efficient alternative to Proof of Work (PoW), becoming one of the most widely adopted consensus mechanisms today. Unlike PoW, which relies on computational power, PoS leverages token ownership to validate transactions and secure the network, reducing energy consumption while maintaining security and decentralisation. Staking - A Brief History and Explanation A consensus mechanism is exactly as it sounds - a means of reaching agreement between network participants. In the absence of a centralized intermediary that can review and verify transactions, as well as monitor participants, decentralised networks need to build trust and reach consensus through other means. This is also known as the Byzantine Generals problem. Proof of Work (PoW) was the first widely adopted consensus mechanism, and supports tokens like Bitcoin - it actually originated in the early 1990s as a way of preventing email spam. Miners compete to find a valid cryptographic hash that meets the network’s difficulty target. The first miner to succeed proposes a new block of transactions and if the network verifies the block as valid, it is permanently added to the blockchain. The successful miner receives a block reward (newly minted tokens + transaction fees). PoW makes fraudulent transactions extremely difficult, because it requires huge amounts of computational power to execute a 51% attack (controlling the majority of mining power). However, PoW has faced criticism as the growing number, diversity, and value of PoW networks and their cryptocurrencies have led to a significant increase in computational power demands, reaching levels comparable to those of mid-sized countries. Proof of Stake (PoS) has been developed as an alternative consensus mechanism, aiming to achieve the same level of network security but without such high energy demands. Unlike the outright competition of proof-of-work, proof-of-stake (PoS) uses a different set of incentives to make sure that network participants behave honestly. PoS relies on participants—known as validators—to lock up, or "stake," their tokens in order to propose and validate new blocks. Validators, like miners, provide technology services to the blockchain. They run software to implement the consensus and validation process. They operate infrastructure hardware and software (akin to Internet service providers). Both miners and validators have a critical role in recording information to their respective blockchains and enabling decentralized systems, but they do so differently. Validators are selected based on the size of their stake and other network-specific criteria, rather than engaging in energy-intensive computational puzzles as seen in PoW. The more tokens a participant stakes, the higher their chances of being chosen to validate the next block. However, this selection process is often weighted with additional mechanisms to prevent undue centralization. When a validator is chosen, they are responsible for verifying transactions, adding new blocks to the chain, and ensuring the overall integrity of the network. In return for their services, they receive staking rewards in the form of newly minted tokens and transaction fees.  As shown by the explanations above, PoW and PoS are not actually the core of how validation of transactions and consensus about adding blocks are achieved. Rather, they are the mechanism by which the participants in those activities and the proposers of blocks are permissioned by the network.  This is known as “sybil resistance” because it stops attackers from gaining easy access to these very important functions by imposing a cost to participate.  Validation of transactions and consensus about which block to add next are carried about by the miners and validators who have paid the price of admission through their work or their stake.  Staking market today PoS has demonstrated its ability to strengthen network security while also being significantly more energy efficient. Additionally, unlike PoW which requires significant upfront investment, PoS allows a broader range of participants to contribute to network security. In a PoS system, validators are selected based on the amount of cryptocurrency they stake rather than computational power, which means that individuals and organizations with varying levels of resources can participate without needing expensive mining rigs or access to cheap electricity.  As such, PoS blockchains have evolved quickly over the past few years, accompanied by an increase in staking activity. In Q1 2024, the average staking reward was 10%, translating to annualized staking rewards of $14 billion—up from $4.9 billion in the same quarter of 2023. The total value of staked assets during this period was projected to reach $239 billion. Staking has come a long way, offering a more energy-efficient and accessible alternative to traditional mining. As the market continues to grow, understanding the different models of staking becomes essential for both newcomers and seasoned participants.  So how do different models compare, and what are the trade-offs between them? Stay tuned for our next post, where we’ll break down the various staking models and what they mean for investors, networks, and the broader crypto ecosystem. Part 2 available now! "Exploring Models of Staking"

The Owl
By and The Owl
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2025-02-20

The Owl Explains Crypto Summit Presented by Sidley

Get ready to witness the convergence of global policy minds at the Owl Explains Crypto Summit Presented by Sidley! This isn't just another crypto conference—it's a unique gathering designed to tackle the most pressing policy and regulatory trends in 2025. Set in the vibrant heart of Central London on May 22nd, 2025, this event promises to be the definitive meeting point for decision-makers influencing the future of blockchain and digital assets. The timing couldn't be more critical. With a new US administration setting the tone, the UK crafting its regulatory regime, MiCA implementation rolling out in Europe, and pivotal changes happening in Hong Kong, Korea, South America, and Southeast Asia, the global regulatory landscape is more dynamic than ever. The Owl Explains Crypto Summit is strategically organized alongside the Avalanche Summit London. This isn’t about passively listening to panel after panel—it's about active participation. Our roundtable format encourages interactive dialogues, allowing you to engage directly with experts and peers. Key Topics Include: Tokenization and the Nature of an Asset: Redefining ownership in a digital world. Decentralization and Open Source Code: Balancing innovation with regulation. Infrastructure vs. Intermediary Requirements: Crafting rules that make sense. Stablecoins, Cybersecurity, AI... and so much more! This immersive format ensures that every voice is heard, and no stone is left unturned as we navigate the complex policy terrain of Web3. The summit is set to bring together a diverse group of 200+ policymakers, regulators, academics, and industry practitioners from around the world. This is your chance to connect directly with the very people shaping the policy and regulatory agenda that will influence blockchain's future. 📅 Save the Date: May 22nd, 2025 📍 Location: The Dorchester, London 💌 Contact Us: OEsummit@avalabs.org for sponsorship and speaking opportunities. 🌐 Learn More: Owl Explains | Sidley This summit offers unparalleled opportunities for networking, knowledge exchange, and influencing the next wave of crypto policy. Sponsoring this event is your gateway to connecting directly with global policy shapers and key stakeholders who are setting the regulatory agenda worldwide. Don’t miss out on the premier event that brings together the brightest minds in blockchain policy and regulation. Follow us on Twitter and LinkedIn for the latest updates and insights leading up to the event. Ticketing opens soon. Stay tuned!

The Owl
By and The Owl